Psychology as the science of behaviour and experience, adopts certain ways of collecting, classifying and interpreting data regarding human bahaviour. These are the method used by psychologists in their investigations, of which some are given below:
Introspection
Introspection is the oldest method
used in psychology. To introspect means ‘to look within’. It is internal observation.
Suppose you go to a movie with your friend. Seeing the ‘movie’ is external
observation. When the friend is asking your opinion about the picture, your
look within, consult your mind and tell your friend that the picture is good or
bad. Seeing the picture is external, but seeing the picutre mentally is
internal observation. This internal observation is known as introspection. This
is a subjective experience. This method was developed by structuralists in
psychology who defined psychology as the study of conscious experiences of the
individual.
Merits of introspection
v It
is the cheapest and most economical method. We do not need any apparatus or
laboratory for its use.
v This
method can be used any time and everywhere.
v It
is the only method with the help of which an individual can know his emotions
and feelings.
v Introspection
has its historial importance. It generated research which resulted gradually in
the development of more objective methods. Introspection is still used in
medicine where the doctor uses other objective methods along with the
introspective report obtained from the patient for diagnosis of disease.
v In
areas of investigation like imagey, thingking, etc. Perhaps introspection
appears to be the only method and even in other cases, introspective reports
can be used to supplement other and more objective methods.
Demerits of introspection
ü The
results of introspection are purely subjective as its results are not varifiable
by others. Introspection will make psychology not an exact science but a
debating society.
ü Even
if one could introspectively observe one’s own experiential states, one’s
vocabulary could never be vivid enough to describe them.
ü What
is called introspection is really retrospectiona as generally we recall a past
experience and analyse it.
Observation
Observation implies observing the
behaviour of others and this method provides direct knowledge of behaviour.
Observation techniques are most useful to teachers in their attempts to
understand the nature of pupils whom they teach. For example, teachers can
observe how pupils behave to attract teachers’ attention, whether the behaviour
of the pupil is dominant or submissive, whether they take active part in class
activities, their study and work habits, degree of self-control, etc. All
techniques of systematic observation without control of stimulation such as
narrative and anecdotal records, situational sampling, time sampling
techniques, play techniques, etc. are alike. There are certain stages in
observation of a systematic and organised character.
1. Perception
(noting behaviour)
2. Recording
of what is observed, which should be careful and objective (checklists help in
this)
3. Classification
and analysis of behaviour and
4. Generalisation
Type of observation
Observation may be different types:
direct and indirect, natural and artificial, scheduled and unscheduled,
participant and non-participant.
Natural and artificial observation
In natural observation we observe
the specifice behavioural charactersistics of children or adults in natural
settings. Subjects do not become conscious of the fact that their behaviour is
being observed by someone. The teacher can observe the bahaviour is being
observed by someone. The teacher can observe the behaviour of students on the
playground or in any other social situations when students may not become
conscious of his presence. In child clinics, one-way screen is used to observe
the behaviour of deviant children. The observer can observe the behaviour of
children but they cannot see the observer. In artificial observations, the
subject is put in stimulated or controlled conditions like one finds in a
laboratory or interview, and the behaviour of the subject is closely observed
and scrutinised.
Limitations of observation method
Ø Establishing
the validity of observation is always difficult. Many of the items of
observation cannot be difined with sufficient precision.
Ø The
problem of subjectivity is also involved. A person tends to see what he knows.
Ø There
is the possibility of distortion od the phenomena through the very act of
observing. The people being observed may become conscious and begin to act in
an unnatural manner.
Ø Sampling
errors of observation like non-observation and mal-observation may creep in. In
non-observation there is omission and in mal-observation there is commission.
(due to observer’s bias)
Ø It
is a slow and laborious process.
Ø Subjectivity
of interpretation is another limitation of observation.
Ø Observation
also suffers from impressionism, prejudice and distraction, etc.
Measures to improve observation and
make it a reliable technique
1. Use
of mechanical devices: observations shoud be immediately recorded. They shoud
not be left on memory for future because there is every possibility of their
being contaminated by personal prejudices and biases of the observers. Some
time important events are left out by failure of recall. The use of mechanical
devices like movie camera, tape recorder, one way see-through glass partition
etc. May improve the reliability of observation. A system of notation or
shorthand may be used for record purposes.
2. Define
objectioves: the investigator may specify in clear and definite terms, the
objectives of the observation. A detailed analysis should be made of
behavioural characteristics which are to be observed.
3. Schedule:
the investigator must decide the time and hour of observation and the schedule
should be honetly followed. A detailed scheduled in the form of questions or
statements should be prepared in advance to note down the observations. The
method of recording observations should be made clear. It will be more reliable
and objective data, if numerial value is assigned to various aspects of
behaviour. Detailed instuctions should be spelt out to minimise variations in
recording by different observers.
4. Training: observation is not a haphazard activity. It
is a systematic and scientific method which requires skills. Competencies,
aptitude and proper training for observers.
5. Precise:
he should make his observation in precise, concrete and unambiguous form. It will be more reliable if the investigator
describes his data quantitatively because numerical measures are more precise
than word descriptions and also they lend themselves to statistical analysis.
Anecdotal method
Anecdotal records are the results of
observation. Anecdotes are episodes and incidents particularly in the young age
of individuals. They are behaviour in sample situations. In recording anecdotes
we should have the date, situation, factual description of incidents, objective
reporting of any related information, adequate number and sequence of records.
For proper interpretation, the record should be reviewed periodically to check
trends in behaviour, to determine if the data are adequate, to prepare
summaries of development. In anecdotal records generalising from a few specific
incidents and recording negative incidents only, should be avoided.
Demerits of this method are:
Ø There
is a danger of mixing one’s own opinions and guesses while recording the
observed facts or incidents.
Ø The
observed behaviour, if it was not described along with the social context in
which it took place, may not bring out the whole truth.
Ø In
most of the anecdotal records, negative incidents only may be recorded and
these may be taken to represent the normal behaviour of individual.
Field study method
The field study method is also mainly
observational in nature. This involves collection data not in the clinic or the
laboratory but in the natural environment of the organism an is very useful in
investigation in the fields of educational and social psychology. Investigating
the industrial strike of a factory by visiting the institution and collecting
data directly is an example for field study. Field study may involve the use of
rating scales, check lists etc. to make observation more systematic.
Experimental method
One of the major contributions of
behaviourism as a school of psychologyis the development of experiemental
method to study. Control and predict human behaviour. Experiment consists of
objective observation of actions performed under rigidly controlled conditions.
Experiment involves control, replication and randomization. The purpose of
experiement in psychology is to understand the causal factors of behaviour.
The basic assumption behind
experimentation is the law of single variable as formulated by John Stuart
Mill. This is known as the method of difference. To quote J.S.Mill, “if two or
more instances have everything in common except one, the one in which they
differ is the cause of the phenomenon”. Stated in a simple language, if two
situations are alike in every respect and one element is added to or removed
from one but not the other, any difference that develops is the result of the
operation of that element added or removed.
Experimentation implies controlled
observation involving planned manipulation of variables, one at a time.
Imdependent variable, also known as stimulus variable or input variable,
operates either within a person or within his environment to affect his
behaviour. It is that factor which is manipulated by the investigator to find
its relationship to and observed phenomenon.
Dependent variable, also known as a
response variable or output variable, is the observed aspect of the behaviour
of an organism that has been stimulated. It is that factor, which is observed
and measured to determine the effect of the independent variable. For example
in a psychology experiment to assess the effect of distraction on work
efficiency, a group of pupils were kept in a pleasant sound-proof room and
given some simple tasks (tapping the desk, putting dots in squares, striking
specific letters like alphabets from printed sheets etc.) in an atmosphere of
no distraction, work efficiency, of each individual was calculated in terms of
speed with which work was done and the accuracy of the work done and the mean
work efficiency of the group, was also calculated. After a gap of 10 minutes
the same group of pupils were given the same task while distraction (like
producing clapping sound in the room, pin-pricking the individuals etc.) was
effected in every half a minute. Now also the mean work efficiency of the group
was calculated again. On comparing the mean efficiency of the group in these
two working conditions it was found experiment ‘distraction’ is the independent
variable and ‘work efficiencey’ is the ‘dependent variable’.
Implications for a classroom
teacher:
Experiments in educational pschology
help the teacher to understand the relative efficiencies of different
instuctional techniques (like lecture method, demonstration method, project
method, etc.), use of A.V aids, study habits of pupils, feedback techniques,
rewards and punishments, use of drill and assignments, etc. And improve the
teaching-learning process so that every learner in the class performs at his
optimum level. Experiments in educational psychology enlighten the classroom
teacher with the ways and means of improving the classroom climate and the
state of mental healthe of the learners.
Merits of experimental method
ü This
method is reliable and more systematic because experiments are conducted under
controlled conditions.
ü Whenever
we have doubts, experiments can be repeated. This is the principle of
replication.
ü The
findings can be verified directly.
ü Use
of computers in data analysis in recent years has opened new frontiers of
possibilities for the study of complex problems.
ü The
experiment can separate the unnecessary conditions and make the experiments
precise. This is not possible in the case of observational method.
Limitations of experimental method
Ø The
conditions under which experiments are conducted are artificial. Behaviour
under laboratory conditions are different from natural conditions. Skinner’s
experiments with pigeons and thorndike’s experiments on cats are artificially
created conditions.
Ø Experimental
data do not provide insight into the total behaviour of the subject.
Ø It
is debatable whether experimental results obtained from studies on animals are
applicable to human beings.
Ø All
problems of educational psychology cannnot be studied by this method
Ø The
experimental method is time consuming and costly. Every teacher cannot be
expected to conduct experiment, as it requires specialised knowledge and
skills.
Case study method
A patient is a case for the doctor.
A client is a case for the lawyers. A law breaker is a case for the police.
Similarly a problem student is a case for the teacher. Sometimes the teacher
may take the case of an exceptional student for study. The main objective of a
case study is to study an individual or group of individuals to detect and
diagnose their specific problem and suggest remedial measures. This method is
also known as clinical method which involves a close and deep study of the
individual who has a problem. Therfore
any case is a problem case. The complete and detailed study of a case may
involve the testes like intelligence, aptitude, interest and personality test.
The clinician collects the material about the case in totality. It is
essentially an expanded cumulative record with interpretaion focussed on the
problem of the subject.
A case study is also known as case
history of the individual because it is the analysis of the most important
aspect of the child. They analysis is in the form of past record, present
position and future possibilities.
Initially case study was limited to problems of
maladjustment such as truancy, failure in schools, or absenteeism, etc.
However, recently this approach has been extended to the investigation of
normal or bright childeren and successful institutions. The finding of such
cases form the basis for guidance in preventing cases or maladjustments. So
case study is a form of qualitative
analysis involving careful and complete observation of a person or institution.
Types of case studies
v Case
studies of individuals;
v Case
studies of institutions;
v Case
studies of communities;
Typical cases to be studied:
ü Children
with exceptionally high achievement.
ü Cases
of under achievement.
ü Children
who constantly present behavioural problems
ü Children
who appear as models for others.
Steps involved in a case study:
ü Identification
of the problem
ü Collection
of pertinent data from all possible sources
ü Diagnosis
of the problem
ü Suggesting
remedial measures.
ü Follow
up
Importance of case study
Ø A
good case study serves a number of purposes:
Ø It
is used for diagnosis and treatment of special problems.
Ø The
teacher is able to develop a systematic and full understanding of the
individual in his total functioning.
Ø It
provides an adequate picture of the subject in counselling service so that the
counseller can help the subject for better adjustment.
Characteristics of a good case
study
Ø It
should be based on adequate material collected through various sources.
Ø Data
thus collected should be valid and reliable.
Ø Data
should be continuous.
Ø It
must be kept confidential
Ø There
must be follow-up for every case study.
Limitations of case study
v The
information provided by the individual is highly subjective and cannot be fully
verified.
v While
performing the case study the complex behaviour of the individual is being
observed. There is a chance that some striking features will go unnoticed,
affecting the study.
v When
there is a lapse of time between observation and interpretation, then the
interpretation is affected.
v The
procedure is largely intuitive and impressionistic. This study will be
influenced by the impressions of the observer.
v Due
to lack of experience and failure to observe significant things, the validity
of case study will be affected.
Questionnaire method
The questionnaire is a popular
technique for gathering data by securing answers to a series of questions
related to the topic under investigation. Questionnaire is usually a printed
form of structured set of questions. There is no set pattern to which questions
should conform nor any required number of questions, nor even any special type
of questions or distinctive format to a questionnaire though certain
conventions have been evolved. Questions in a questionnaire may be open-ended
in which the subject pshrases his response with little constraint from the
investigator (eg. What is your most favourite hobby?), closed or Yes/No type in
which the investigator predetermines the response categories (eg. Do you get
dreams regularly while you sleep at night? Yes/No) . sometimes multiple choices
are also given for one choice to be picked up. Questions may also be direct or
indirect. A questionnaire may be self-administrative and mailed to subjects for
completion and return or it may be personally administered as in the case of
schedule. Too many or too few questions shoud be avoided, so also complex
questions and double barraled questions. Questions should be phrased in a
clear, simple and understandable way and arranged in appropriate groupings.
Personality and attitude questionnaires are popular. Referendum, opinion polls
etc. are also variations of the questionnaire technique.
Generally questionnaires are used
in the following circumstances:
Ø When
we want to get answers to a series of questions within a short time.
Ø When
we are unable to contact the subjects or the investigation directly.
Ø When
data which are not readily available or not conveniently assembled and arranged
have to be collected.
Ø When
impersonal or general data are to be collected.
Ø To
compare persons and groups.
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