(1888 – 1975)
1. INTRODUCTION
Dr. S. Radhakrishnan is one of the
India’s most influential scholars of comparative religion and philosophy. He
started his teaching career as professor of philosophy in different Indian
universities. He wrote authoritative exegeses of India’s
religious and
philosophical literature for the English speaking world. His notes on Western
Philosophy attracted by the Westerners. His academic appointments included King
George of Mental and Moral Science at the University (1936 – 1952). Among the
many honours he received were a Knighthood (1931), the Bharat Ratna (1954) and
Templeton award (1975), before his death. His birthday is celebrated in India
as Teacher’s Day on 5 September. In 1963, he was made an honorary member of the
order of merit.
2. BRIEF LIFE SKETCH
Dr. S. Radhakrishnan was born at
Tiruttanni, near Madras, of Telugu Brahmin parents. He had his early education
in Lutheran Mission High School at Tirupati, and in Voorhese College, Vellore
and studied in the Madras Christian College and took his M.A. Degree in
Philosophy, in 1909.
From 1909 to 1917, he was on the
staff of the Presidency College, Madras. He was transferred to the Arts
College, Rajahmunury as Lecturer in Philosophy. Then he was selected as
Professor of Philosophy in Mysore University, in 1918. In Mysore, that same
year he wrote the philosophy of Rabindranath Tagore, and in 1920 the Reign of
religion in Contemporary Philosophy. He was appointed the George V Professor of
Philosophy at Calcutta in 1921. The first Volume of Indian Philosophy was
published in 1923, second volume was published in 1927 and
revised in 1929.
Dr. S. Radhakrishnan led the Indian Delegation
to UNESCO from 1946 – 1950, was appointed Indian Ambassador to Moscow in 1949.
He became the Vice President of India for 10 years he was the confidant and
adviser of Pandit Nehru, and became the President of India in 1962 for a five
year term. In 1963, he was made an Honorary Member of the Order of merit.
Before his death, he received the Templeton Award in 1975.
3. HIS WRITING WORKS
In 1926, he published a book as “ The
Hindu View of Life”. It made him very famous. In 1927, His second part of his
work completed. He discussed the philosophy of Vaishnavism, Shaivism and
Shaktism. In 1932, He authored the first volume of his famous work, “Indian
Philosophy” where in surveyed the essential of Vedas, Upanishads, Bhagwadgita,
Jainism , Realism and Buddism.
In his book, “Eastern Religions and
Western Thought” Radhakrishnan revealed how the Upanishads influenced and
Western thought from the time of Pythogoras and Plato to the modern times.
Number of books were written by Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, some of them are “The
Heart of Hindustan” and “Freedom and Culture”.
4. HIS PHILOSOPHY
According to Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, Philosophy
is a wide term that includes logic, ethics, aesthetics, social philosophy and
metaphysics. Metaphysics which is concerned with the ultimate nature of things
is comprised of two main fields, Ontology and Epistemology. Science studies the
different facts of experience, while philosophy develops the meaning and
explanation of experience as a whole. Philosophy studies experience in a
concrete form and reveals the order and being of experience itself. It
sustained attempt to understand the universe as a whole; it coordinates and
interprets all significant aspects of experience – the reports of scientists,
the intuitions of the artists and the insights of saints. Human consciousness
consists of the perceptual, the logical and intuitive awareness.
4.1. PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE
Dr. S. Radhakrishnan philosophy is
idealism. This means that life has a purpose, and ideals and values are the
dynamic forces that give direction to life and help it to achieve its goal.
Man’s inborn feeling in God, his search for truth his striving for perfection,
his longing for goodness, his craving for beauty all his hopes, ideals and
aspirations – abundantly prove man’s essential divine nature.
4.2. SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY
4.2. SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY
Dr. S. Radhakrishnan remarks that a
society or civilization is carried forward by the efforts of a minority
consisting of men of wisdom, of courage and power. These individuals are in
communion with the good, both seen and unseen, and have ‘the energy to graft
their vision on to the existing social substance’. True liberty consists in the
deliberate regulation of social forces for the positive development of the
individuals. It is not a compromise between society and the individual, but a
sense of social wholeness. The social objective is to be gained by persuasion,
not by force. Social changes should be an ordered development and not a violent
disruptive change. Enlightened people should support policies which promote
public good by education opinion and propagating right ideas.
Dr. S. Radhakrishnan defines culture as the transformation of one’s
being to produce sweetness of temper, sanity of mind and strength of spirit.
Civilization
to Dr. S. Radhakrishnan is essentially a movement of the spirit. Modern civilization is in the stage of
economic barbarism concerned more with the world and its power. Its failure to
utilize correctly the enormously increased productive power due to science is a
danger that threatens it.
In the technological civilization,
technology which is the manipulation of the environment in the interests of
human life are abused in the interests of wrong social, political and
international power relations.
The new civilization cannot
be based only on science and technology but on human spirit. Radhakrishnan remarks that we must discover
the reserves of spirituality and use them to fashion a new type of man who utilizes
the scientific instruments with the spiritual awareness.
4.3.
PHILOSOPHY OF HISTORY
To Dr. S. Radhakrishnan, History is
and interplay of leadership, opportunity and circumstances. It is the story of
remarkable individuals dramatically engaged in mastering the hostile
environment. History is also compared to a mirror in which we see our inner
selves. It is also defined as a creative process, a meaningful pattern brought
about by the spirit of man.
Radhakrishnan argues that if the
supreme Reality were unique, passive and immobile there would be no room for
time, for movement, for history. Eternity is not the denial of time or history;
it is the transfiguration of time; which derives from eternity and finds
fulfillment in it. He classifies history as cultural history, social history
and the history of the sciences. He declares that one of the deepest trends in
human history is to escape from submission to nature or fate, and the free
human being can change the nature or the growth of society.
5. HIS RELIGION
Radhakrishnan defines religion as the
insight in to the nature of Reality or experience of Reality. This experience
is the response of the whole personality, the integrated Self to the central
Reality. Religion is the self-manifestation of the Ultimate Reality in man. It
is the awareness of our real nature in God; and in it is a way in which the
individual organizes the inward being and responds to what is ‘ envisaged by
him as the Ultimate Reality’.
DEFINITION
Radhakrishnan defines religion also
as a strenuous endeavor to apprehend truth. “A religion represents the soul of
the people, its particular spirit, thought and temperament. It is an expression
of the spiritual experience of the race a record of its social, evolution, an
integral element of the society in which it is found”.
Radhakrishnan’s three stages are Hearing, Reflection and Disciplined meditation for the religious
life. One has to rise from one stage to another. The present day growing
dissatisfaction with the established religion is the prelude action to the rise
of a truer, more spiritual and more universal religion.
6. HIS AESTHETICS
Art is the expression of experience
in some medium, the experience is clothed in forms which appeal to the emotion
through the senses. The experience is released afresh by means of the work of
art and the enjoyer becomes the secret sharer of the creator’s mind.
DEFINITION OF ART
Radhakrishnan defines art as a form
of knowledge, a disclosure of the deeper reality of things, and an imitation of
inner reality.
The aim of art is to capture the
inner and informing spirit and it is by integral insight or spiritual intuition
that the artist attains to the power of artistic expression. The greatest gifts
of art are peace and reconciliation. Both aesthetic creation and enjoyment are
non – intellectual actions. Aesthetic satisfaction is a kin to spiritual joy,
the fruit of the fulfillment of the inner being.
7. HIS ETHICS
Evil
is a negative conception, the lack of good; and all conflict is between good
and better or bad and worse. Evil is caused by the abuse of one’s free-will,
and God permits it because, he does not interfere with the human choice.
Suffering is not punishment, but is the reward of fellowship, an essential
accompaniment of all creative endeavors. In spite of the world cannot be the
God of love, there can be no love without sorrow and suffering. In the
conception of avatara or descent of God the Divine accepts suffering, endures
it and brings the goal nearer.
The law of moral progress is one of
acceptance and adventure. The objective of morality to Radhakrishnan is social
redemption and not individual salvation. When one attains the spiritual level,
one rises above the ethical discipline in course of time brings about a change
in the inward man and makes him practice good in an effortless, spontaneous
way. The integrated personality is incapable of doing any wrong. Full freedom
thus demands the transfiguration of the world.
CONTRIBUTION TO EDUCATION
8. AIMS OF EDUCATION
·
To enable to know that
education is a life – long process.
·
To bring man nearer to
God to attain this aim, one should study the different aspects of education.
·
To awaken the innate
ability to live the life of soul by developing wisdom.
·
Education could
establish a classless society and ensure equality among human.
·
To develop certain values
like fearlessness of mind, strength of conscience and integrity of purpose.
·
To improve the
spiritual development of the students.
·
To train for self
development.
·
To teach that life has
a meaning.
·
To train for democracy.
·
To impart vocational
and professional training.
·
To impart vocational
and professional training.
·
Education should aim at
the self-realization civil responsibly, non-violence, faith in democracy
·
Unity and feeling of
brotherhood.
9. MEANS OF EDUCATION
Dr.Radhakrishnan strongly favored
modern means of education. He maintained that students of different professions
should be given practical training as far as possible. Elaborating this
principle, the University education commission under him made the following
recommendations.
9.1. AGRICULTURE
The study of agriculture in primary, secondary and higher education be
given high priority in national economic planning. So far as is feasible,
agricultural education be given a rural setting.
9.2. COMMERCE
A commerce student should be
given opportunities for practical work in three or four different kinds of
firms.
9.3. EDUCATION
The course be remodeled and more time given to school practice and more
weight to practice in assessing the student’s performances.
9.4. ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
The number of engineering schools of different grades be increased
particularly for training of grades 4 and 5 ( Foremen, Craft men, Draft men,
Overseers etc.)
9.5. LAW
A three – year degree course be offered in special legal subjects.
Students pursuing degree course in law shall not be permitted to carry other
degree courses simultaneously except in a few instances where advanced students
have proved their interest and are studying related subjects in law and some
other field.
9.6. MEDICINE
The maximum number of admission to a medical college be 100, provided
the staff and equipment for that number are available.
10. TYPES OF EDUCATION
Dr.Radhakrishnan views on various
type of education. Some of them are given below :
10.1. MORAL EDUCATION
Dr.Radhakrishnan wanted to make moral education a compulsory part of
education at primary and secondary levels without it the educational
institution cannot fulfill their objective of educating the youth of the
country .Moral education is the education of will. It starts in the family.
10.2.
RELIGIOUS EDUCATION
Dr.Radhakrishnan supports religious education. It is a mean for
developing a spiritual intuition because, ”The aim at religion is spiritual and
not merely a change in metaphysical ideas”. The religious education will
provide freedom and spiritual progress to the educand.
The university Education commission,
under the chairmanship of Radhakrishnan, made the following recommendations
1. In
the first year lives of the great religious leaders like Gautama the Buddha, Confucius,
Jesus, Socrates, Ramanuja, Madhva, Kabir, Nanak and Gandhi be taught.
2. In
the second year some selections of a universal character from the scriptures of
the world be studied.
3. In
the third year, the central problems of the philosophy of religion be
considered.
10.3. PRIMARY
EDUCATION
Dr.Radhakrishnan
praised M.K. Gandhi’s scheme of basic education for the primary education in
India. It explains the importance of physical education. He recommends teaching
of both humanities and science subjects along with languages on the primary
level.
10.4. SECONDARY
EDUCATION
Dr.Radhakrishnan
has considered secondary education as a next step continuous with the primary
education. The student should be provided a multisided curriculum including
science, humanities and languages. The curriculum should be modified according
to the needs of the country because the primary aim of education is to meet the
needs of the nation and to create national unity.
10.5. UNIVERSITY
EDUCATION
The most
significant contribution made by Radhakrishnan to Indian education has been in
the area of higher education. This contribution was made through the University
Educational Commission Report.
10.5.1. OBJECTIVES OF THE UNIVERSITIES
1. To seek
and cultivate new knowledge.
2. To
provide the right kind of leadership in
all walks of life.
3. To
provide society with competent men and women trained in agricultural, arts,
medicine, science and technology.
4. To
undertake carefully worked out programmes for school Improvement.
11. PROBLEMS OF HIGHER EDUCATION
According to Radhakrishnan the most
important problems of higher education are :
1. Role
of the university system.
2. Improvement
of standards.
3. Restructuring
of courses.
4. Post
graduate education and research.
5. Autonomous
college.
6. Academic
freedom.
7. Student
discipline
8. Role
of UGC
9. Medium
of instruction.
12. FUNCTION OF EDUCATION
1. EDUCATION AND SPIRITUAL VALUES
Education is the means by which we can tide up our minds, acquire
information as well as a sense of values. Education gives to us that bent of
mind, that attitude of reason, that spirit of democracy which will make us
responsible citizens of our country.
2. EDUCATION AND SELF-DISCIPLINE
We must train the young to the best possible all around living,
individual and social. We must make them intelligent and good. They observe
unwritten laws of decency and honor felt by good men but not enforced by any
statue.
3. EDUCATION OF WOMEN
Women are human beings and have as much right to full development as men
have. In regard to opportunities for intellectual and spiritual development, we
should not emphasize the sex of women even as we do not emphasize sex of men.
In all Human beings irrespective of their sex, the same drama of flesh and the
spirit of finitude and transcendence takes place.
13. MEDIUM OF EDUCATION
Mother tongue, English, Sanskrit, Hindi
as the medium of education.
14. CURRICULUM
On curriculum, Radhakrishnan in his
university commission report published in 1949 said that a student should study
a number of subjects such as history, Geography, Political Science, Economics, General
Science, Natural Science, Agricultures, Philosophy, Ethics and Literature.
Stressing the need for some specific subjects that are relevant to everyday
life, he said that the students should be provided education subjects like Home
Science, Cooking, Fine arts etc.
15. DISCIPLINE
Dr.Radhakrishnan stresses that the students
should be trained to approach life’s problems with fortitude self control and a
sense of balance which the new conditions demand. He encouraged self
discipline.
16. METHODS OF TEACHING
Radhakrishnan stated that
observation, experimentation and association are some of the effective methods
of teaching. He recommended different method of teaching for different areas.
For instance, he suggested imitation for industry and actual examples by the
teachers for moral education.
17. ROLE OF TEACHERS
Teachers are the removers of both
intellectual ignorance and spiritual ignorance. Teachers are the reservoirs of
this new spirit, the new of adventure in intellectual matters, in social matters
and in political matters. Therefore the teacher should give education,
instruction, knowledge and give more examples while teaching.
18. UNIVERSITY EDUCATION COMMISSION
The greatest contributions of Dr.
Radhakrishnan to educational thought and practical is the report of the
university Education commission 1948-1949. The report of the commission which
was presided over by Dr. Radhakrishnan a distinguished scholar is a document of
great importance as it has guided the development of university education in
India after independence.
19. RECOMMENDATION
1. To
inculcate and promote basics human values and the capacity to choose between
alternative value system
2. To
enrich the Indian languages and promote their use as important means of
communication, national development and unity.
3. To
promote a rational out look and scientic temper.
4. To
promote the development of the total personality of the students and inculcate
in them a commitment to society through involvement in national service
programme.
5. To
promote commitment to the pursuit of excellence.
6. To
contribute to the improvement of the entire educational system. So as to sub
serve the community.
20. CONCLUSION
Besides making significant
contribution as chairman of university Education commission. Dr. Radhakrishnan
wrote about aim, mean, types,methods and medium of education from an integral
view points.Finally on April 17, 1975, he breathed his last leaving the
academic world poorer.
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